TOP - Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory by Feist & Feist
Born June 15, 1902, in southern Germany, Erik Erikson was brought up by his mother and stepfather, but he remained uncertain of the true identity of his biological father.
Erikson regarded his post-Freudian theory as an extension of psychoanalysis, something Freud might have done in time. Although he used Freudian theory as the foundation for his life-cycle approach to personality, Erikson differed from Freud in several respects. Erikson placed more emphasis on both social and historical influences.
The Ego in Post-Freudian Theory
Erikson held that our ego is a positive force that creates a self- identity, a sense of “I.” As the center of our personality, our ego helps us adapt to the various conflicts and crises of life and keeps us from losing our individuality to the leveling forces of society.
Erikson (1968) identified three interrelated aspects of ego: the body ego, the ego ideal, and ego identity. The body ego refers to experiences with our body; a way of seeing our physical self as different for other people. We may be satisfied or dis- satisfied with the way our body looks and functions, but we recognize that it is the only body we will ever have. The ego ideal represents the image we have of ourselves in comparison with an established ideal; it is responsible for our being satisfied or dissatisfied not only with our physical self but with our entire personal identity. Ego identity is the image we have of ourselves in the variety of social roles we play.
1. Society’s Influence - Although inborn capacities are important in personality development, the ego emerges from and is largely shaped by society. Erikson’s emphasis on social and historical factors was in contrast with Freud’s mostly biological viewpoint. To Erikson, the ego exists as potential at birth, but it must emerge from within a cultural environment. Different societies, with their variations in child-rearing practices, tend to shape personalities that fit the needs and values of their culture.
2. Epigenetic Principle - Erikson believed that the ego develops throughout the various stages of life accord- ing to an epigenetic principle, a term borrowed from embryology. The ego follows the path of epigenetic development, with each stage developing at its proper time. One stage emerges from and is built upon a previous stage, but it does not replace that earlier stage. This epigenetic develop- ment is analogous to the physical development of children, who crawl before they walk, walk before they run, and run before they jump. When children are still crawl- ing, they are developing the potential to walk, run, and jump; and after they are ma- ture enough to jump, they still retain their ability to run, walk, and crawl. Erikson (1968) described the epigenetic principle by saying that “anything that grows has a ground plan, and that out of this ground plan the parts arise, each part having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen to form a functioning whole”
The epigenetic principle is illustrated in Figure 9.1, which depicts the first three Eriksonian stages. The sequence of stages (1, 2, 3) and the development of their component parts (A, B, C) are shown in the heavily lined boxes along the diagonal. Figure 9.1 shows that each part exists before its critical time (at least as biological potential), emerges at its proper time, and finally, continues to develop during sub- sequent stages. For example, component part B of Stage 2 (early childhood) exists during Stage 1 (infancy) as shown in Box 1B. Part B reaches its full ascendance dur- ing Stage 2 (Box 2B), but continues into Stage 3 (Box 3B). Similarly, all components of Stage 3 exist during Stages 1 and 2, reach full development during Stage 3, and continue throughout all later stages (Erikson, 1982).
Stages of Psychosocial Development
Comprehension of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development requires an understanding of several basic points. First, growth takes place according to the epigenetic principle. Second, in every stage of life there is an interaction of opposites—that is, a conflict between a syntonic (harmonious) element and a dystonic (disruptive) element. For example, during infancy basic trust (a syntonic tendency) is opposed to basic mistrust (a dystonic tendency). Third, at each stage, the conflict between the dystonic and syntonic elements produces an ego quality or ego strength, which Erikson referred to as a basic strength. Fourth, too little basic strength at any one stage results in a core pathology for that stage. Fifth, although Erikson referred to his eight stages as psychosocial stages, he never lost sight of the biological aspect of human development. Sixth, events in earlier stages do not cause later personality development. Ego identity is shaped by a multiplicity of conflicts and events—past, present, and anticipated. Seventh, during each stage, but especially from adolescence forward, person- ality development is characterized by an identity crisis, which Erikson (1968) called “a turning point, a crucial period of increased vulnerability and heightened potential”
1. Infancy- To Erikson (1963, 1989), infancy is a time of in- corporation, with infants “taking in” not only through their mouth but through their various sense organs as well. Through their eyes, for example, infants take in visual stimuli. As they take in food and sensory information, infants learn to either trust or mistrust the outside world, a situation that gives them realistic hope. Infancy, then, is marked by the oral-sensory psychosexual mode, the psychosocial crisis of basic trust versus basic mistrust, and the basic strength of hope.
a. ) Oral-Sensory Mode - Erikson’s expanded view of infancy is expressed in the term oral-sensory, a phrase that includes infants’ principal psychosexual mode of adapting. The oral-sensory stage is characterized by two modes of incorporation—receiving and accepting what is given.
b.) Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust - Infants’ most significant interpersonal relations are with their primary caregiver, ordinarily their mother. If they realize that their mother will provide food regularly, then they begin to learn basic trust; if they consistently hear the pleasant, rhythmic voice of their mother, then they develop more basic trust; if they can rely on an ex- citing visual environment, then they solidify basic trust even more. In contrast, they learn basic mistrust if they find no correspondence between their oral-sensory needs and their environment.
c.) Hope: The Basic Strength of Infancy - Hope emerges from the conflict between basic trust and basic mistrust. Without the antithetical relationship between trust and mistrust, people cannot develop hope. If infants do not develop sufficient hope during infancy, they will demonstrate the antithesis or the opposite of hope—withdrawal, the core pathology of infancy.
2. Early Childhood - young children receive pleasure not only from mastering the sphincter muscle but also from mastering other body functions such as urinating, walking, throwing, holding, and so on. In addition, children develop a sense of control over their interpersonal environment, as well as a measure of self-control. However, early childhood is also a time of experiencing doubt and shame as children learn that many of their attempts at autonomy are un- successful.
a.) Anal-Urethral-Muscular Mode - During the 2nd year of life, children’s primary psychosexual adjustment is the anal- urethral-muscular mode. At this time, children learn to control their body, especially in relation to cleanliness and mobility.
b.) Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt - If early childhood is a time for self-expression and autonomy, then it is also a time for shame and doubt. if children do not develop basic trust during infancy, then their attempts to gain control of their anal, urethral, and muscular organs during early childhood will be met with a strong sense of shame and doubt, setting up a serious psychosocial crisis. Shame is a feeling of self- consciousness, of being looked at and exposed. Doubt, on the other hand, is the feel- ing of not being certain, the feeling that something remains hidden and cannot be seen. Both shame and doubt are dystonic qualities, and both grow out of the basic mistrust that was established in infancy.
c.) Will: The Basic Strength of Early Childhood - The basic strength of will or willfulness evolves from the resolution of the crisis of autonomy versus shame and doubt. Children develop will only when their environment allows them some self- expression in their control of sphincters and other muscles. When their experiences result in too much shame and doubt, children do not adequately develop this second important basic strength. Inadequate will is expressed as compulsion, the core pathology of early childhood. Too little will and too much compulsivity carry for- ward into the play age as lack of purpose and into the school age as lack of confidence.
3. Play Age - Erikson (1968) contended that, in addition to identifying with their parents, preschool-age children are devel- oping locomotion, language skills, curiosity, imagination, and the ability to set goals.
a.) Genital-Locomotor Mode - The primary psychosexual mode during the play age is genital-locomotor. Erikson (1982) saw the Oedipal situation as a prototype “of the lifelong power of human playfulness” (p. 77). In other words, the Oedipus complex is a drama played out in the child’s imagination and includes the budding understanding of such basic con- cepts as reproduction, growth, future, and death. The Oedipus and castration com- plexes, therefore, are not always to be taken literally. A child may play at being a mother, a father, a wife, or a husband; but such play is an expression not only of the genital mode but also of the child’s rapidly developing locomotor abilities.
b.) Initiative Versus Guilt - As children begin to move around more easily and vigorously and as their genital interest awakens, they adopt an intrusive head-on mode of approaching the world. Al- though they begin to adopt initiative in their selection and pursuit of goals, many goals, such as marrying their mother or father or leaving home, must be either re- pressed or delayed. The consequence of these taboo and inhibited goals is guilt. The conflict between initiative and guilt becomes the dominant psychosocial crisis of the play age. On the other hand, if guilt is the dominant element, children may become compulsively moralistic or overly inhibited. Inhibition, which is the antipathy of purpose, constitutes the core pathology of the play age.
c.) Purpose: The Basic Strength of the Play Age - The conflict of initiative versus guilt produces the basic strength of purpose. Chil- dren now play with a purpose, competing at games in order to win or to be on top.
4. School Age - Erikson’s concept of school age covers development from about age 6 to approximately age 12 or 13 and matches the latency years of Freud’s theory. At this age, the social world of children is expanding beyond family to include peers, teachers, and other adult models.
a.) Latency - Erikson agreed with Freud that school age is a period of psychosexual latency. Sexual latency is important because it allows children to divert their energies to learn- ing the technology of their culture and the strategies of their social interactions. As children work and play to acquire these essentials, they begin to form a picture of themselves as competent or incompetent. These self images are the origin of ego identity—that feeling of “I” or “me-ness” that evolves more fully during adolescence.
b.) Industry Versus Inferiority - Industry, a syntonic quality, means industriousness, a willingness to remain busy with something and to finish a job. School-age children learn to work and play at activities directed toward acquiring job skills and toward learning the rules of cooperation. As children learn to do things well, they develop a sense of industry, but if their work is insufficient to accomplish their goals, they acquire a sense of inferiority—the dystonic quality of the school age. Earlier inadequacies can also contribute to children’s feelings of inferiority.
c.) Competence: The Basic Strength of the School Age - From the conflict of industry versus inferiority, school-age children develop the basic strength of competence: that is, the confidence to use one’s physical and cognitive abilities to solve the problems that accompany school age. Competence lays the foundation for “co-operative participation in productive adult life”
5. Adolescence - the period from puberty to young adulthood, is one of the most crucial developmental stages because, by the end of this period, a person must gain a firm sense of ego identity.
a.) Puberty, defined as genital maturation, plays a relatively minor role in Erikson’s concept of adolescence. For most young people, genital maturation presents no major sexual crisis. Nevertheless, puberty is important psychologically because it triggers expectations of adult roles yet ahead—roles that are essentially social and can be filled only through a struggle to attain ego identity.
b.) Identity Versus Identity Confusion - The search for ego identity reaches a climax during adolescence as young people strive to find out who they are and who they are not. A crisis should not suggest a threat or catastrophe but rather “a turning point, a crucial period of increased vulnerability and heightened potential” (Erikson, 1968, p. 96). An identity crisis may last for many years and can result in either greater or lesser ego strength. According to Erikson (1982), identity emerges from two sources: (1) adolescents’ affirmation or repudiation of childhood identifications, and (2) their historical and social contexts, which encourage conformity to certain standards.
c.) Fidelity: The Basic Strength of Adolescence - The basic strength emerging from adolescent identity crises is fidelity, or faith in one’s ideology. After establishing their internal standards of conduct, adolescents are no longer in need of parental guidance but have confidence in their own religious, political, and social ideologies.
6. Young Adulthood - a time from about age 19 to 30—is circumscribed not so much by time as by the acquisition of intimacy at the beginning of the stage and the development of generativity at the end.
a.) Genitality - True genitality can develop only during young adulthood when it is distinguished by mutual trust and a stable sharing of sexual satisfactions with a loved person. It is the chief psychosexual accomplishment of young adulthood and exists only in an intimate relationship.
b.) Intimacy Versus Isolation - Young adulthood is marked by the psychosocial crisis of intimacy versus isolation. Intimacy is the ability to fuse one’s identity with that of another person without fear of losing it. Because intimacy can be achieved only after people have formed a stable ego, the infatuations often found in young adolescents are not true intimacy. mature intimacy means an ability and willingness to share a mutual trust. It involves sacrifice, compromise, and commitment within a relationship of two equals. It should be a requirement for marriage, but many marriages lack intimacy because some young people marry as part of their search for the identity that they failed to establish during adolescence. The psychosocial counterpart to intimacy is isolation, defined as “the incapacity to take chances with one’s identity by sharing true intimacy”
c.) Love: The Basic Strength of Young Adulthood - Love, the basic strength of young adulthood, emerges from the crisis of intimacy versus isolation. Erikson (1968, 1982) defined love as mature devotion that overcomes basic differences between men and women. Although love includes intimacy, it also contains some degree of isolation, because each partner is permitted to retain a sep- arate identity. Mature love means commitment, sexual passion, cooperation, compe- tition, and friendship. It is the basic strength of young adulthood, enabling a person to cope productively with the final two stages of development. The antipathy of love is exclusivity, the core pathology of young adulthood.
7. Adulthood - The seventh stage of development is adulthood, that time when people begin to take their place in society and assume responsibility for whatever society produces.
a.) Procreativity - procreativity refers to more than genital contact with an intimate partner. It includes assuming responsibility for the care of offspring that result from that sexual contact. Ideally, procreation should follow from the mature intimacy and love established during the preceding stage.
b.) Generativity Versus Stagnation - The syntonic quality of adulthood is generativity, defined as “the generation of new beings as well as new products and new ideas” (Erikson, 1982, p. 67). Generativity, which is concerned with establishing and guiding the next generation, includes the procreation of children, the production of work, and the creation of new things and ideas that contribute to the building of a better world. The antithesis of generativity is self-absorption and stagnation. The generational cycle of productivity and creativity is crippled when people become too ab- sorbed in themselves, too self-indulgent.
c.) Care: The Basic Strength of Adulthood - Erikson (1982) defined care as “a widening commitment to take care of the persons, the products, and the ideas one has learned to care for” (p. 67). As the basic strength of adulthood, care arises from each earlier basic ego strength. One must have hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, and love in order to take care of that which one cares for. The antipathy of care is rejectivity, the core pathology of adulthood. Rejectivity is the unwillingness to take care of certain persons or groups (Erikson, 1982). Rejectivity is manifested as self-centeredness, provincialism, or pseudospeciation: that is, the belief that other groups of people are inferior to one’s own.
8. Old Age - The eighth and final stage of development is old age. Old age can be a time of joy, playfulness, and wonder; but it is also a time of senility, depression, and despair. The psychosexual mode of old age is generalized sensuality; the psychosocial crisis is integrity versus despair, and the basic strength is wisdom.
a.) Generalized Sensuality - The final psychosexual stage is generalized sensuality. Erikson had little to say about this mode of psychosexual life, but one may infer that it means to take pleasure in a variety of different physical sensations—sights, sounds, tastes, odors, em- braces, and perhaps genital stimulation.
b.) Integrity Versus Despair - A person’s final identity crisis is integrity versus despair. At the end of life, the dys- tonic quality of despair may prevail, but for people with a strong ego identity who have learned intimacy and who have taken care of both people and things, the syn- tonic quality of integrity will predominate. Integrity means a feeling of wholeness and coherence, an ability to hold together one’s sense of “I-ness” despite diminish- ing physical and intellectual powers.
c.) Wisdom: The Basic Strength of Old Age - Erikson (1982) defined wisdom as “informed and detached concern with life itself in the face of death itself ” (p. 61). People with detached concern do not lack concern; rather, they exhibit an active but dispassionate interest. With mature wisdom, they maintain their integrity in spite of declining physical and mental abilities. Wisdom draws from and contributes to the traditional knowledge passed from generation to generation. In old age, people are concerned with ultimate issues, including nonexistence (Erikson, Erikson, & Kivnick, 1986). The antithesis of wisdom and the core pathology of old age is disdain, which Erikson (1982, p. 61) defined as “a reaction to feeling (and seeing others) in an in- creasing state of being finished, confused, helpless.” Disdain is a continuation of re- jectivity, the core pathology of adulthood.
Erikson’s Methods of Investigation
Erikson insisted that personality is a product of history, culture, and biology; and his diverse methods of investigation reflect this belief. He employed anthropological, historical, sociological, and clinical methods to learn about children, adolescents, mature adults, and elderly people.
1. Anthropological Studies - Erikson (1963) was able to show that early childhood training was consistent with this strong cultural value and that history and society helped shape personality.
2. Psychohistory - The discipline called psychohistory is a controversial field that combines psycho- analytic concepts with historical methods. Erikson (1974) defined psychohistory as “the study of individual and collective life with the combined methods of psychoanalysis and history” (p. 13). He used psychohistory to demonstrate his fundamental beliefs that each person is a product of his or her historical time and that those historical times are influenced by exceptional leaders experiencing a personal identity conflict.
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To cite reference:
Feist, Jess & Feist, Gregory J. 2008. Theories of Personality, 7th Edition. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Publish in the United States of America.
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